Hum History kyun padhte hai...aur History humko kya sikhaata hai ?

History is one subject in the galaxy of subjects that teaches its readers not only the subject, but also a lot of wisdom. Most people hold the view that history is just a list of events that have occurred and put only in a chronological order. True history is a chronological list of events. But, if we study it only as that we are missing on it and we are not giving the subject its correct status.

This subject has such a large perspective of things that, no other subject that is studied ever can be without its history. Science has a history, technological development has a history, religion has a history. No subject of any significance is without a history, then how can we say that history is trash. If man had not discovered that fire can be produced by rubbing two stones, how would the theory of creating of fire come into being? If the ancient man would not have produced the wheel, how could we know to the present uses of the wheel? If the Hindu religion did not have the division of castes, how would the present situation f castes come into being? So we can say that the very essence of man's progress is based on history and its study.

The evolution of man itself is based on history, his progress and most of his scientific and technological developments are all the results of man's history, of the History of evolution had not been confined into history books, and if we had not read these books, how would we know about our past, and how would we maintain the tempo of development and progress. Man learnt from his mistakes, his experiences, the shortcomings of his ancestors, and continued to progress. Is this not a contribution of history? Does this not make the study of history important for us? The one single subject that had contributed so immensely to the constant and continuous growth of civilization is the history.

Another plea for not studying this drab subject is when people say history is just what passed away people have done. In this regard we must remember that we are not only studying what they did but, in the process, we are trying to understand what mistakes have they committed, and why? It has often been said that, history repeats itself. This means that if we repeat the same mistakes we will reach the same disasters. Is this very little an advantage of study of the subject that, as people, as a community, as a country, we realize the mistakes of our ancestors, and we do not commit the same mistakes and get the same results? So, here comes the wisdom imparted by this lone subject. It is only after the study of history that we can assess the mistakes of the preceding generations.

It is from history the Britishers have learned the imperialism cannot continue for ever. It is from history that Indians have learned that we have to remain united to keep the country one single unit, to keep it safe and strong. 

It is the study of history that makes the modern world shudder to think of another nuclear holocaust.

The memory of Nagasaki and Hiroshima is still fresh in the minds of the world and so the fear of repetition of this keeps us aware and cautious. If we had not studied all these facts written in our history books, our reservoir of knowledge would have been much less, and we would not have been so well aware of the results of certain actions. Is this not enough of a gift to the world, of just one single subject?

If there would not have been this subject, how would we ever be able to assess how much man has progressed from the animal he was, to the highly sophisticated creation of God that he is today? How would we ever know about our own India's rich cultural heritage, and so also how would we have been able to assess how and why we a have become a third world country as we are today? Again, all this because of our study of history.

The differences of culture in different parts of the world are also brought to our knowledge by the history of the world. It is only through the study of history that we come to know about the social, political and educational systems of the world, and we can adapt them to our country, if we feel the need. History! Besides gaining knowledge, this subject teaches us wisdom of life and teaches causes and effects of different actions. If we continue to learn from our history we shall never make the same mistakes again - and that would be quite a step forward. Like science, history also gives us formula. Science gives formula for progress of elements and history gives us formula of success. If we learn from History, we humans will certainly continue to forge ahead, and become a more and more disciplined and cultured force.

Besides the big lessons that we learn from History, it also teaches us how to behave in our day-to-day lives. We learn how discipline helped the forces of Alexander the Great to overcome Indians, and how at the same time and venue, the undisciplined forces of India surrendered to them. We learn how with their service to India through missionaries, the British could steadily spread their wings through the length and breadth of India. We learn from history how love for mankind made saints of Vivekanand, Gautam Buddha and Mahavira. We learn from history how, man's desire to dominate others result in the ultimate break up of the British Empire in India. The greatest lesson that history has taught us Indians is the lesson we learned from our struggle for independence, i.e. we learned how much we can achieve if we stand united and have flare for nationalism.

Thus, this single subject which often faces the - ridicule of students and elders provides us with a sea of knowledge, insight and wisdom. It also teaches what the finer feelings of love and service can do for man. This one subject teaches us to become human and of course, it is the alma mater of all other subjects, as the history of any subject is taught before starting the study of the subject itself. It may be said that history is the mother of all other subjects, and should not be considered as, only a chronology of events, of the world, it is much more than just that. It is this subject that gives us the understanding of all countries that we can assess our position and then continue on our path of progress.

When we study the biographies of great men, we learn how to follow their footsteps and try to achieve at least a semblance of their greatness. These biographies teach us the qualities of great men which we can emulate and try to be achievers. This single subject makes such an enormous contribution that it will not behave any of us to talk of it in a jocular tone, on slight it. It teaches us to be good humans. It teaches us what actions are likely to have what reactions. It brings to light our rich heritage and also teaches us how the other countries are progressing. So we can say that history is a great teacher.

Source-- Ezine Articles 

Governor Generals of British India

Warren Hastings Plan 1772 - 1785 :

• 
  
  
  Brought the Dual Govt, of Bengal to an end by the Regulating Act, 1773.
• 
  
  
  Deprived zamindars of their judicial powers and Civil and Criminal courts were established.
• 
  
  
  Maintenance of records was made compulsory.
• 
  
  
  The First Anglo-Maratha War (1776 - 82), which ended with the Treaty of Salbai (1782),
  and the Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84), which ended with the Treaty of Mangalore (1784), were fought during Hasting's period.
  As a great patron of oriental learning, he founded the Asiatic Society of Bengal with William Jones in 1784. He wrote introduction to the first English translation of "The Gita" by Charles Wilkins.

Impeachment proceedings started against him when he returned on the charges of taking bribe. After a trial of 7 years, he was finally acquitted.

Note : Sir John MacPherson was made the acting Governor-General from 1785 to 1786.

Lord Cornwallis India (1786 - 1793) :

• 
  Did the Permanent Settlement of Bengal (also called Zamindary System).
• 
  
  
  First person to codify laws. The code separated the revenue administration from the administration of justice.
• 
  
  
  Police Reforms : Each district was divided into 400 sq. miles and placed under a police superintendent assisted by constables.
• 
  
  
  The civil service was brought into existence.

Sir John Shore History (1793 - 1798)

Lord Wellesley in India (1798 - 1805) :

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  Adopted the policy of Subsidiary Alliance a system to keep the Indian rulers under control and to make the British the paramount power.
• 
  
  
  He defeated the Mysore force under Tipu Sultan in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War in 1799.

Subsidiary Alliance in India :

• 
  
  
  The Subsidiary Alliance System was used by Weilesley to bring Indian Slates within the orbit the British political power. The system played a very important part in the expansion of ll Company's dominionsand many new territories were added to the Company's possessions.
• 
  
  
  There were four stages in it. In the first stage, the Company undertook to lend its, friendly Indian prince to assist him in his wars, in the second stage, the Company's troops tot the field on their own account with the assistance of an Indian ally who made common; them.
  
  
  
  The next stage was reached when the Indian ally was not to supply men but money. The company undertook to raise, train and equip an. army under English officers and rende to the ally a fixed number of troops on receiving a sum of money towards the cost of these troop Tire final stage was the next logical step.
  The Company undertook to defend the territories of an Indian ally and for that purpose stationed a subsidiary force in the territory of the state. 11 Indian ally was asked not to pay money but surrender territory from the revenue of which tl expenses of the subsidiary force were to be met.
• 
  
  
  The Indian states were to conduct negotiations with other states through the Company. The ste was to accept a British Resident at its headquarters. The Alliance enabled the Company maintain a large standing army at the expense of Indian princes. It disarmed the Indian states ai threw British protectorate over them.
• 
  
  
  The states that accepted this policy were the Nizam of Hyderabad, the ruler of Mysore, the Raja Tanjore, the Nawab of Awadh, the Feshwa, the Bhonsle Raja of Berar, the Scindia, the Rajputs Jodhpur, Jaipur, etc.

Land Revenue System in India :

Permanent Settlement (The Zamindari System) :

• 
  
  
  Introduced in Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and districts of Banaras and Northern districts of Madras by Lord Cornwallis in 1793.
• 
  
  
  John Shore planned this.
• 
  
  
  It declared Zamindars as the owners of the land. Hence, they could keep 1/11th of the revenue collected to themselves while the British got a fixed share of 10/11th of the revenue collected. The Zamindars were free, to fix the rent.
• 
  
  
  Assured of their ownership, many Zamindars stayed in towns (absentee landlordism) and exploited their tenants.

Ryotwari System in India :

• 
  
  
  Introduced in Bombay, Madras and Assam. Lord Munro and Charles Reed recommended it.
• 
  
  
  In this,a direct settlement was made between the govt, and the ryot (cultivator).
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  The revenue was fixed for a period not exceeding 30 years, on the basis of the quality of the soil and the nature of the crop. It was based on the scientific rent theory of Ricardo.
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  The position of the cultivator became more secure but the rigid system of revenue collection often forced him into the clutches of the money-lender.

Mahalwari System in India :

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  Modified version of Zamindari settlement introduced in the Ganges valley, NWFR parts of Central India and Punjab. Revenue settlement was to be made by village or estate with landlords. In Western UR a settlement was made with the village communities, which maintained a form of common ownership known as Bhaichara, or with Mahals, which were groups of villages.
• 
  
  
  Revenue was periodically revised.

George Barlow (1805 - 1807)

Lord Minto I Governor General of India (1807 - 1813) :

• 
  
  
  Concluded the treaty of Amritsar with Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1809).
• 
  
  
  Charter Act of 1813 was passed.

Lord Hasting India (1813 - 1823) :  
The Anglo-Nepal War (1814-16) was fought during his reign which ended with the Treaty of Sagauli (1816).

Lord Amherst (1823 - 1828)

Lord William Bentinck History (1828-1835) :

• 
  
  
  Carried out the social reforms like Prohibition of Sari (1829) and elimination of thugs (1830).
• 
  
  
  Made English the medium ofhighereducation inthe country (Afterthe recommendations of Macaulay).
• 
  
  
  Suppressed female infanticide and child sacrifice.
• 
  
  
  Charter Act of 1833 was passed; made him the first Governor General of India. Before him, the designation was Governor General of Bengal.

Sir Charles Mercalfe History (1835 - 1836) : Abolished all restrictions on vernacular press (called Liberator of the Press).

Lord Auckland 1842 (1836 - 1842) : The most important event of his reign was the First Afghan War, which proved to be a disaster for the English.

Lord Ellenborough (1842 - 1844)

Lord Hardinge I (1844 - 1848)

Lord Dalhousie Reforms (1848 - 1856) :

• 
  
  
  Opened the first Indian Railway in 1853 (from Bombay to Thane).
• 
  
  
  Laid out the telegraph lines in 1853 (First was from Calcutta to Agra).
• 
  
  
  Introduced the Doctrine of Lapse and captured Satara (1848), Jaipur and Sambhalpur (1849), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1854) and Nagpur (1854) through it.
• 
  
  
  Established the postal system on the modern lines through the length and breadth of the country, which made communication easier.
• 
  
  
  Started the Public Works Department. Many bridges were constructed and the work on Grand Trunk Road was started. The harbors of Karachi, Bombay and Calcutta were also developed.

Lord Dalhousie Doctrine of Lapse : The Doctrine of Lapse was an annexation policy devised by Lord Dalhousie. According to the Doctrine, any princely state or territory under the direct influence (paramountcy) of the British East India Company, as a vassal state under the British Subsidiary System, would automatically be annexed if the ruler was either "manifestly incompetent or died without a direct heir".

The company took over the princely states of Satara (1848), Jaipur and Sambalpur (1849), Nagpur and Jhansi (1854) and Awadh (Oudh) (1856) using the Doctrine. The Doctrine is thought to be one of the major driving forces behind the Revolt of 1857.

• 
  
  
  Made Shimla the summer capital.
• 
  
  
  Started Engineering College at Roorkee.
• 
  
  
  Encouraged science, forestry, commerce, mineralogy and industry.
• 
  
  
  In 1854, "Wood's Dispatch' was passed, which provided for the properly articulated system of education from the primary school to the university.
• 
  
  
  Due to Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar's efforts, remarriage of widows was legalized by Widow Remarriage Act, 1856).

Dose--Harappa

Harappa Environment

During this period, the climate of the region was moist with humid land; dense forests grew where animals like tiger, elephants and rhinoceros roamed. The forests provided timber for brick kilns, which supplied bricks to the cities.

Date of Harappan Culture

This civilization belonged to the Chalcolithic period. In this age, a new metal called bronze by mixing tin and copper came to be produced. It was harder and better suited to meet the needs of the people. The better tools led to intensive cultivation. Iron was not known to the Indus Valley people. According to Sir John Marshall, the Hindus Valley Civilization may be dated between 3250 B.C. arid 2750 B.C.

Extent

The Harappan culture spread to Sindh, Gujarat. Undivided Punjab (including Harayana), Jammu, Western parts of Uttar Pradesh and Northern parts of Rajasthan (Kalibangan). The remains found in these places are similar to those found in Harappa and Mohenjo-daro.

Contacts with other civilizations in Harappa

The indus Valley people had overseas trade contacts with Sumeria, Babylonia and Egypt, Thus India ranks with the ancient Western cultures of Burner, Akkad, Babylon, Egypt and Assyria.

Planned Cities in Harappa

Mohenjo and Harappa were the planned cities. They were the two biggest cities, 600 km apart. They had similar planning, layout and technique in construction. They were probably the twin capitals. Mohenjo-daro, means ‘the mound of the dead’.

The city of Mohenjo-dato could be divided into three parts-the Citadel, the lower town arid the small huts on the outer limits of the city.

The Citadel in Harappa

It was the raised part of the city. It has often been described as a fort or administrative block. People might have lived here. The ruling classes included priests and wealthy merchants. The citadel had massive walls. Those walls provided protection against the floods of the Indus river. The citadel consisted of important buildings like the Granary and the Assembly or Town Halls, We also come across the Great Bath here.

The Great Bath

it was situated in the citadel, it measures 1.88 meters X 7.01 meters and is 2.43 meters deep. It had two flights or steps on oTher side, It was made of burnt bricks and mortar, it was provided with two openings one at the top (to let in water) and the other a the bottom (used as an outlet), The idea was to clean the Bath periodically. 1”here were small rooms around tile Bath. They were probably used as dress changing rooms. One of the rooms contained a big well.

The Granary in harappa

In Mohenjo-daro the arqost building is the Granary. It s 45,71 meters long and 15.23 meters wide. In Harappa there were 6 granaries. To the sooth of the granaries, there were circular brick platforms. They were meant for threshing grain.

Town Hall in Harappa

The Town Hall is an imposing structure with 69 meters long arid 23.4 meters wide. The thickness of the walls varied from 1.2 to 1.5 meters. lt might have been used as an administrative block, an assembly hall, a prayer hall, or as a hall for cultural shows.

Lower Town in Harappa

Below the citadel laid a lower town. It was inhabited by petty merchants and craftsmen. This town was divided into rectangular blocks by wide roads. The roads run from north to south and east to west. These roads cut each other at right angles. Here, the remains of brick houses can be seen. The drainage system is praiseworthy. Provision was made for street lighting.

Harappan Houses

The houses were one or two storey high. All the houses were made of baked bricks of uniform size. Every house had two or more rooms, a bath-room, a kitchen and a courtyard. The houses were also provided with doors and small windows The grinding stones were found close to the hearth

Drainage System in Harappa

The kitchen and the bathroom had drains leading out. The main drain was running alongside the main roads. The drains were lined with bricks. Most of them were covered. There were flights of steps leading to drains. The drains were cleaned periodically.

Occupations of the people in Harappa

The Indus people were farmers, weavers, potters, metal workers, toy makers, jewelers, stone cutters and traders Agriculture was the most important occupation In the fertile soils, farmers cultivated two crops a year They were the first who had grown paddy They knew different methods of irrigation. They used ploughs and sickles Pottery was a popular industry. They were skilled in the use of potter’s wheel.

Animal Husbandry in Harappa

The Indus people had domesticated a number of animals such as oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheep, pigs, asses and camels.

Spinning and Weaving in Harappa

The Indus people were skilled in the art of spinning and weaving. They manufactured woollen cloth from sheep and goats’ hair.

Toy-making and sculptures in Harappa

Manufacture of terracotta (burnt clay) was a major industry of the people. The figures of toys, animals and figurines were manufactured. A miniature toy-cart with a driver pulled by oxen is praiseworthy. Figures of animals such as sacred bull and dove were discovered. The figures of Mother Goddesses were used for religious purposes

Seal-making in Harappa

A large number of seals numbering more than 2000 have been discovered. They carry short inscriptions with carved pictures of animals. The seals were made of terracotta or satellite. They were used for trade. They have provided lot of information about the daily life of the people, their religion, occupations, customs and trade.

Building Industry in Harappa

In building industry, large number of people were employed Manufacture of bricks was an important industry. The bricks were more or less of an uniform size.

Trade in Harappa

The lndus people had engaged themselves in internal and foreign trade The Mesopotamian seals were found in Indus cities and the Indus seals were found in Mesopotamia. Remains of dockyard have been discovered at Lethal in Gujarat. In this dockyard, the ships might have been loaded and unloaded. Thus, the Hindus people were familiar with ships. The merchants were prosperous and lived lavishly. They used sticks with marks to measure articles. They also used various kinds of weights and measures.

Political Organization in Harappa

The city was well administered by a class of wealthy merchants and priests. There was some kind of municipal organization It took care of sanitation and regulated trade. It collected taxes in the form of grains and also maintained law and order in the city

Social Life in Harappa

There were three social groups. The first group or the ruling class lived in the citadel It comprised of wealthy merchants and the high priests. They second group consisted of petty merchants, artisans arid craftsmen. The laborers belonged to the third group and lived in small huts. Generally speaking, the social organization was more definite

Life of the People in Harappa

The Indus people led prosperous life. They had more time for leisure. There was a very big improvement in their food habits, dress and amusements.

Food in Harappa

Wheat and barley were the staple food of the people. Besides these, they consumed milk, meat, fish, fruits and dates.

Dress and Ornaments in Harappa

The women wore a short skirt. It. was held at the waist with a girdle. The men wore a long, loose unstitched garment Women wore necklaces bangles, bracelets, earrings and waist bands. These were made of gold and silver, bone, stone, ivory and she! Men had also adorned themselves with ornaments like armlets. The rich wore gold and silver jewelry. The poor used shell, copper and silver ornaments. The women combed their hair.

Indus Script in Harappa

Indus Script Most of the inscriptions were engraved on seals They contain only a few words They developed picture writing (Pictographs,,). Altogether about 250 to 400 pictographs were discovered. It is interesting to note that the Indus script has not yet been deciphered.

Religious Life in Harappa

The Papal tree was used as a religious symbol. They worshipped Pasupathi (Siva) and Mother Goddess Mother Goddess represented fertility. There are no temple structures among the remains. The Indus people believed in life after death. They buried their dead in huge earthen pots along with food and ornaments. The articles used by them in then’ daily life were also kept in those pots.

Decline of the Indus Civilization

The Indus Civilization was at its peak for about 500 years They lived in the same kind of houses, used the same tools and ate the same food. The city (Mohenjo-daro) was destroyed for a number of times and it was built again and again. The exact causes for the destruction of this great civilization are not known. The cities might have been destroyed by natural disasters like earthquakes, floods or a change in the course of the Indus. The cities declined owing to Aryan invasions also. Deforestation was another cause for the destruction of this civilization

The Harappan did not know the use of iron.

Courtesy--http://www.indiaandindians.com/india_history/harappan_civilization.php

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Poona Pact

Poona Pact, Agreed to by Leaders of Caste-Hindus and of Dalits, at Poona on 24-9-1932

The following is the text of the agreement arrived at between leaders acting on behalf of the Depressed Classes and of the rest of the community, regarding the representation of the Depressed Classes in the legislatures and certain other matters affecting their welfare

1. There shall be seats reserved for the Depressed Classes out of general electorate seats in the provincial legislatures as follows: -

Madras 30; Bombay with Sind 25; Punjab 8; Bihar and Orissa 18; Central Provinces 20; Assam 7; Bengal 30; United Provinces 20. Total 148. These figures are based on the Prime Minister's (British) decision.

2. Election to these seats shall be by joint electorates subject, however, to the following procedure –

All members of the Depressed Classes registered in the general elec- toral roll of a constituency will form an electoral college which will elect a panel of tour candidates belonging to the Deparessed Classes for each of such reserved seats by the method of the single vote and four persons getting the highest number of votes in such primary elections shall be the candidates for election by the general electorate.

3. The representation of the Depressed Classes in the Central Legislature shall likewise be on the principle of joint electorates and reserved seats by the method of primary election in the manner provided for in clause above for their representation in the provincial legislatures.

CENTRAL LEGISLATURE

4. In the Central Legislature 18 per cent of the seats allotted to the general electorate for British India in the said legislature shall he reserved for the Depressed Classes.

5. The system of primary election to a panel of candidates for election to the Central and Provincial Legislatures as i herein-before mentioned shall come to an end after the first ten years, unless terminated sooner by mutual agreement under the provision of clause 6 below.

6. The system of representation of Depressed Classes by reserved seats in the Provincial and Central Legislatures as provided for in clauses (1) and (4) shall continue until determined otherwise by mutual agreement between the communities concerned in this settlement.

7. The Franchise for the Central and Provincial Legislatures of the Depressed Classes shall be as indicated, in the Lothian Committee Report.

8. There shall be no disabilities attached to any one on the ground of his being a member of the Depressed Classes in regard to any election to local bodies or appointment to the public services. Every endeavour shall be made to secure a fair representation of the Depressed Classes in these respects, subject to such educational qualifications as may be laid down for appointment to the Public Services.

(Adult franchise but reservation has been provided for Dalits on population basis, till 1960),

9. In every province out of the educational grant an adequate sum shall be ear-marked for providing educational facilities to the members of Depressed Classes,

Courtesy--

Rowlatt Act

The Rowlatt Act was passed in 1919, indefinitely extending wartime "emergency meaures" in order to control public unrest and root out conspiracy. This act effectively authorised the government to imprison without trial, any person suspected of terrorism living in the Raj .

Mahatma Gandhi, among other Indian leaders, was extremely critical of the Act and argued that not everyone should be punished in response to isolated political crimes. The Act led to indignation from Indian leaders and the public, which caused the government to implement repressive measures. Some people who read the enactment found that constitutional opposition to the measure was fruitless so on April 6th, a "hartal" was organised where Indians would suspend all business and fast as a sign of their hatred for the legislation.

However, the hartal in Delhi was overshadowed by tensions running high which resulted in rioting in the Punjab and other provinces. Gandhi saw that the Indians were not ready for such a stand and suspended the hartal.

The Rowlatt Act came into effect in March 1919.

In the Punjab the protest movement was very strong, and on April 10th, two outstanding leaders of the congress Dr. Satya Pal and Dr. Saifuddin Kithlew, were arrested and taken to an unknown place.

A protest was held in Amritsar, which led to the Amritsar Massacre of 1919.

Courtesy--

Harshavardhana

Harshavardhana was an Indian emperor who belonged to Pushibhukti family. He was born around 580 AD and is believed to be the son of Prabhakar Vardhan, the founder of Vardhan Dynasty. At the height of his glory his kingdom spanned the Punjab, Bengal, Orissa and the entire Indo-Gangetic plain north of the Narmada river. He ascended the throne after his elder brother Rajya Vardhana got murdered by Sasanka, King of Gauda. At this time he was just 16 years of age.

After his accession to the throne he merged the two kingdoms of Thanesar and Kannauj and shifted his capital to Kannauj.

Harsha was a secular ruler and respected all the religions and faiths. In his early life he used to be a sun-worshipper but later he became the follower of Shaivism and Buddhism. According to the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang, who visited the kingdom of Harsha in 636 AD, Harsha built many Buddhist Stupas. He was also a great patron of the Nalanda University.

He was the first to establish the Sino-Indian diplomatic relationships.

He was a good scholar and a noted author. He wrote three plays in Sanskrit namely Ratnavali, Priyadarsika and Nagananda. We can find well-documented record of his reign in the work of his court poet Banabhatta. Bana wrote Harsha Charita, the first historical poetic work in Sanskrit language. Work of the Chinese traveler, Xuanzang also provides a deep insight into the life during Harshavardhana's rule.

He ruled India for almost forty years, and died in 647 AD, leaving behind no heir to the throne. After his death his empire disintegrated.

cOURTESY----

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Bhishma Parva

Hindu epic Mahabharata contains 18 books or parvas. The sixth Parva is Bhishma Parva. (sanskrit, पर्वन्, parvan, noun, means portion)

This Bhishma Parva (Main Division) contains the following four Sub Divisions:

Jamvu-khanda Nirmana Parva: 1 to 10 chapters
Bhumi Parva: 11 & 12 chapters
Bhagavat-Gita Parva: 13 to 42 chapters
Bhishma Vadha Parva: 43 to 122 chapters

This book of the Mahabharata is important for two reasons.

First of all, it contains the Bhagavad Gita, the best-known Hindu sacred text.

Secondly, this book describes the start of the enormous battle which is the center-piece of the work, specifically the first ten days of conflict, up to the fate of the hero Bhishma.

The Bhishma Parva starts with an overture of apocalyptic and unnatural portents. It then immediately digresses into a treatise on geography and natural history--one of several texts which the great epic accreted over time.

After this comes the Bhagavad Gita, which unlike some of the other digressions, is a good thematic fit in the narrative. Arjuna, facing a battle in which he will have to fight many of his immediate relatives, is understandably hesitant to fight. The Avatar Krishna then proceeds to explain to Arjuna why he must fulfill his duty as a warrior, and how he can emerge from this spiritual crisis of conscience with a clean slate. This text deals with the contradictions of living a devotional life in an imperfect world. Even non-Hindus have found the Gita meaningful for this reason. Then Krishna reveals to Arjuna his divine form; this section is one of the best attempts to describe the indescribable ever written.

Finally we move on to the battle itself, which occupies two-thirds of Book 6, a relentless and immersive description of the horror of war. This is literally a blow-by-blow description of each incident of combat over a period of ten days. And this is no ordinary battle. The combatants absorb incredible numbers of arrows and are still standing, ready to fight the next day. The field is stalked by vampires and cannibals. There are rivers and oceans of blood and gore. The heroes wield superweapons and magic spells, only described elliptically, with which they slay thousands of opponents at a time. And at the end we learn how Bhishma, the undefeatable leader of Duryodhana's army, is finally brought down.

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Gautamiputra Satakarni

Gautamiputra Satakarni

Gautamiputra Satakarni was the famous ruler of Sattavahana dynasty, under whom the empire regained a dazzling recovery.

The Sattavahanas who are mentioned in the Puranas as the Andhra were the original inhabitants of Western Deccan. They however extended their sway over Eastern Deccan in the later years.

The founder of the Sattavahana dynasty according to Puranas was Simuka who ousted the last Kanva king Susharman from the throne and established the dominion of the Sattavahanas.

Since the ascension of Simuka to the throne for the next half-century, the Sattavahanas witnessed a series of decline owing to the Scythian invasion. But the Sattavahanas had experienced an incredible recovery under Gautamiputra Satakarni, the celebrated king of the Sattavahana Dynasty. He is also regarded the greatest of the Sattavahanas since his prosperity even excelled his predecessors. The exploits and achievements of Gautamiputra Satakarni were commemorated in the Nasik Prasasti, incised 20 years after the death of Gautamiputra by his mother Devi Gautami Balasri. Another important source about the reign of Gautamiputra Satakarni is the Nasik Prasasti.

The time period of Gautamiputra`s reign is a controversial subject and till date historians have failed to provide authentic information about that. Satakarni was the contemporary of Saka Kshatrapas, Nahapana and also defeated him in the eighteenth year of his reign. However Gautamiputra ruled till 130 A.D.

Gautamiputra Satakarni was described in the Nasik Prasasti as "Saka-Yavana Pallava Nisudana", the destroyer of the Sakas, Pahlavas and the Yavanas.

The first sixteen years of his reign was devoted to the great preparation of the struggle against the Saka power under Nahapana. The coins of Nahapana engraved by the name of Gautamiputra, testifies his success against the Sakas. Nahapana had seized the Western Deccan from Sattavahanas.

To take avenge Gautamiputra carried out a valiant struggle against the Sakas for two long years and finally killed Saka chief Nahapana and his governor Rishavadatta. The legend of the Saka-Sattavahana struggle during Gautamiputra is also known from a gatha in Nirukti. Nahapana defended his capital Brigukachchha from the Sattavahana invasion for two years but the accumulated wealth being exhausted, Nahapana became weak, defeated and finally was killed. Gautamiputra later uprooted the Yavanas and the Pahlavas from Deccan. Gautamiputra not only recovered his paternal land Maharashtra, the original homeland of the Sattavahanas, but also annexed the Saka kingdom in Gujarat, Berar, Saurashtra, Malwa and North Konkan.

The overthrow of the Sakas by Gautamiputra constituted the Sattavahanas as a formidable power in South. The idea of Digvijay began to haunt the Gautamiputra`s vision. From the Nasik Prasasti it is known that apart from the countries conquered from Nahapana, Gautamiputra extended his sway over the districts watered by the rivers of Rishika, Godavari and also the regions of Hyderabad and Berar. The conquests of Satakarni are known from the Nasik Prasasti. The territories conquered by Gautamiputra include Asika or Maharashtra, Muluka or northern Maharashtra, Surutha or Kathiawar, Kukura or Western Rajputana, Anupa or Narmada Valley, Vidarbha or Berar, Akara, Avanti or western Malwa, Aparanta or Konkan. The Nasik Prasasti also delineated that Gautamiputra was the master of the extensive land lying to the south of the Vindhya Mountain, extending from the Western Ghats to the Eastern Ghats and also included the Travancore region. However there is still a keen controversy among the historians whether the region of Andhra, the second home of the Sattavahanas and Southern Kosala were part of Gautamiputra`s territory.

The mighty conqueror Gautamiputra Satakarni also earned enough prosperity as an able and benevolent ruler. As a ruler Gautamiputra had a strong sense of public duty. To stabilise a strong administrative establishment he introduced twin foundations of Sastric Laws and humanism, on which his administration was based. He emphasised on the taxation system and levied taxes in conformity with justice. He worked for the well-being and upliftment of the poor and the downtrodden section of his Empire.

As a king he witnessed the ill effects of narrow casteism, which had crept up in the society during the contemporary era. Hence he was a great patron and a promoter of Varnasrama dharma. At the same time he stopped the growth of sub castes due to the intermingling of four social orders.

But Dr. Gopalachariya however thinks that sub-castes existed during that period. According to him, due to the multiplication of vocations, it was not practically possible for Gautamiputra to stop the growth of sub-castes. A sophisticated and learned king, Gautamiputra Satakarni was a staunch Brahmanist but he was benign to other religious sects also.

Such a tough and powerful king like Gautamiputra Satakarni towards the end of his reign suffered overthrows in Kardamaka Sakas. They snatched away most of the districts conquered by Gautamiputra from Nahapana, the king of the Kshatrapa Sakas. After the fall of the Kshatrapa Sakas, a sister branch of Kshatrapas, the Kardamakas emerged. The Geography of Ptolemy and the Girnar inscription of Rudramana also corroborate the fact.

Gautamiputra Satakarni the illustrious ruler of the Sattavahana Dynasty was successful in unifying the major parts of India under the authority of the Sattavahana Empire. Gautamiputra was considered the destroyer of the Sakas, Pahlavas and the Yavanas. Under Gautamiputra, the Sattavahana Empire attained a successful recovery and thriving prosperity. Being a benevolent ruler Gautamiputra was tolerant towards the other religious groups and introduced administrative reforms for the successful administration of the vast Empire. Gautamiputra Satakarni, hence can be regarded the greatest among the Sattavahanas.

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Mudra- Rakshasa, Sanskrit Drama

Mudra- Rakshasa, Sanskrit Drama
Mudra-Rakshasa is a Sanskrit drama of Visakhadatta.

Mudra-Rakshasa is a Sanskrit drama of Visakhadatta. This is said to be a drama, which has an historical interest, for Chandragupta, the Sandracottus of Greek writers, is a leading character in it. The date of its production is apparently the eleventh or twelfth century A.D.

The purpose of the play is to reunite Rakshasa, the hostile minister of Nanda, the late king of Palibothra, to the individuals by whom, or on whose behalf, his sovereign was murdered, that is the Brahman Chanakya, and the prince Chandragupta.

By means of this analysis Rakshasa is provided by the device of Chanakya, an object of suspicion to the prince with whom he took refuge, and is consequently dismissed by him. In this abandoned condition he discovers the forthcoming danger of a dear friend whom Chanakya is about to put to death. With the aim to save his friend he surrenders himself before the enemies. On the contrary the enemies offer him with the rank and power of prime minister, and the parties are finally friends.

The author of the play is called in the prelude Visakhadatta. He was not a poet of the sphere of Bhavabhuti or Kalidasa but he has a vigorous perception of character and a manly strain of sentiment. He is the Messenger of the Hindus.

cOURTESY--http://www.indianetzone.com/30/mudra-_rakshasa_sanskrit_drama.htm

Ancient History

Harshavardhana

With the commencement of the 7^th century, Harshavardhana (606-647 A.D.) ascended the throne of Thaneshwar and Kannauj on the death of his brother, Rajyavardhana. By 612 Harshavardhana consolidated his kingdom in northern India.

In 620 A.D. Harshavardhana invaded the Chalukya kingdom in the Deccan, which was then ruled by Pulakesin II. But the Chalukya resistance proved tough for Harshavardhana and he was defeated. Harshavardhana is well known for his religious toleration, able administration and diplomatic relations. He maintained diplomatic relations with China and sent envoys, who exchanged ideas of the Chinese rulers and developed their knowledge about each other.

The Chinese traveller, Hiuen Tsang, who visited India during his reign, has given a vivid description of the social, economic and religious conditions, under the rule of Harsha spoke highly of the king. Harsha's death, once again, left India without any central paramount power.

The Chalukyas of Badami

The Chalukyas were a great power in southern India between 6^th and 8^th century A.D. Pulakesin I, the first great ruler of this dynasty ascended the throne in 540 A.D. and having made many splendid victories, established a mighty empire. His sons Kirtivarman and Mangalesa further extended the kingdom by waging many successful wars against the neighbours including the Mauryans of the Konkans.

Pulakesin II, the son of Kirtivarman, was one of the greatest ruler of the Chalukya dynasty. He ruled for almost 34 years. In this long reign, he consolidated his authority in Maharashtra and conquered large parts of the Deccan. His greatest achievement was his victory in the defensive war against Harshavardhana.

However, Pulakesin was defeated and killed by the Pallav king Narasimhavarman in 642 A.D. His son Vikramaditya, who was also as great a ruler as his father, succeeded him. He renewed the struggle against his southern enemies. He recovered the former glory of the Chalukyas to a great extent. Even his great grandson, Vikramaditya II was also a great warrior. In 753 A.D.,

Vikramaditya and his son were overthrown by a chief named Dantidurga who laid the foundation of the next great empire of Karnataka and Maharashtra called Rashtrakutas.

The Pallavas of Kanchi

In the last quarter of the 6^th century A.D. the Pallava king Sinhavishnu rose to power and conquered the area between the rivers Krishna and Cauveri. His son and successor Mahendravarman was a versatile genius, who unfortunately lost the northern parts of his dominion to the Chalukya king, Pulekesin II. But his son, Narsinhavarman I, crushed the power of Chalukyas.

The Pallava power reached its glorious heights during the reign of Narsinhavarman II, who is well known for his architectural achievements. He built many temples, and art and literature flourished in his times. Dandin, the great Sanskrit scholar, lived in his court.

However, after his death, the Pallava Empire began to decline and in course of time they were reduced to a mere local tribal power. Ultimately, the Cholas defeated the Pallava king Aparajita and took over their kingdom towards the close of the 9^th century A.D.

The ancient history of India has seen the rise and downfall of several dynasties, which have left their legacies still resounding in the golden book of Indian history. With the end of the 9^th century A.D., the medieval history of India started with the rise of empires such as the Palas, the Senas, the Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas, and so on.